The Path Of Human Evolution Was Always Been Full Of...

The path of human evolution was always been full of challenges. However, unlike other species on the planet man s evolutionary progression is predominantly social. Changes that human opted for are not that of adding body parts to better survive and to improve themselves. Man preferred the psycho social path of growth and development. It was his way not to simply be subservient to the forces of nature in terms of providing him the basis for advancement as a species. On the contrary, the human race directed the course of its own evolution. This covers an active and effortful development by instilling things that are progressive and suppressing opposing tendencies. The effort to mold humans into a more evolved and more advanced†¦show more content†¦The idea of crime and punishment as well as an action and communal response have been conditioned into the human consciousness that human behavior has this as an integral component. On the social level, this leads to the creation of an environment wherein individuals may pursue holistic development and coexist with others. This is the fundamental reason by other creatures; especially predatory kinds do not have society and civilization. Furthermore, human history clearly establishes that the human race constantly socially engineers itself to attain almost everything. Other species do not actively preserve the environment. However, the human race s idea is that such act of preservation is essential for his survival. It can be conceded that this is the result of environmental abuse that man caused but the same can be said of other species when they devastate their own habitat.This establishes that the sum of human civilizations, current attributes as well as achievements are evolutionary developments brought about by social engineering. And this will continue so long as the human race exists In the Green Engineering segment, we have highlighted the following as promising career opportunities. Profession 1: E nvironmental Engineers Environmental Engineers are expected to enjoy the Golden Time over the next 10 to 20 years, those who had a visionShow MoreRelatedUsing Proofs to Establish a Case for Gods Existence: McCloskey1374 Words   |  6 Pagesexistence of the universe and the relationship to God that are found in the book Philosophy of Religion by C. Stephen Evans and R. Zachary Manis. Some believe that the universe has always existent with no starting point, my answer to that would be that the universe could have always existed and there for God could have always existed too. Another argument is if God made everything than who made God, that everything is a contingent being that has a cause for the reason why they or it exist, but God isRead MoreThe Competitive Advantage of Microsoft and Its Hr1354 Words   |  6 Pages1) What is Microsoft’s competitive advantage? How is supported/constrained by human resource management? Microsoft Corporation is one of the largest and most influential companies in the personal computer industry. It has won several awards for innovation, for their commitment to diversity, and for their flexible work arrangements. It has always been a leader in the market with regard to its compensation. With 80,0004 employees  across the world, having more than $15 billion revenue, it is oneRead MoreThe Competitive Advantage of Microsoft and Its Hr1363 Words   |  6 Pages1) What is Microsoft’s competitive advantage? How is supported/constrained by human resource management? Microsoft Corporation is one of the largest and most influential companies in the personal computer industry. It has won several awards for innovation, for their commitment to diversity, and for their flexible work arrangements. It has always been a leader in the market with regard to its compensation. With 80,0004 employees  across the world, having more than $15 billion revenue, it is one ofRead MoreThe Main Factors Of The Communist Manifesto1680 Words   |  7 Pages The conditions that Karl Marx deems necessary for a communist revolution have not manifested themselves in the present day, presenting challenges for communist ideology. As our society has gradually been regressing further away from these prerequisite conditions, a number of new factors have become present that challenge the relevance of the Communist Manifesto. The first of these factors to be addressed is globalization in the modern world. Ever since the age of imperialism, globalization has servedRead MoreConsumerism And Consumerism1246 Words   |  5 PagesConsumerism destroys most human elements in its path as it forces people to become dependent on the transitory joy of technological innovations. In Fahrenheit 451, â€Å"15 Million Merits,† and â€Å"Dover Beach,† the pursuit of materialistic ideals requires the exchange of humanity for the brief entertainment that technology provides. However, the trade also requires the consumer to become a slave to the will of media. The advertising industry simultaneously creates and feeds upon the desperation of consumersRead MoreHiv / Aids : A Deadly Disease1474 Words   |  6 Pagesdestroys body’s immune system. AIDS is brought about by a virus called Human Immune-Deficiency Virus, better known as HIV. This virus is minute, even invisible to a powerful microscope and can remain in the body for years without showing any visible symptoms. AIDS is the final stage of infection of the virus. It takes a period of about 10 years between being infected with HIV developing AIDS. The first case of AIDS infection in America was detected in 1959. Later, AIDS emerged as a fatal widespread diseaseRead MoreEffective Communication And Successful Implementation Of Change Initiatives1467 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Organizational change is inevitable and seemingly always on the horizon in the business world. It can directly affect organizational culture in both a positive and negative aspect. In order to combat the negative components of change that will surface, effective communication must be utilized as a part of the change strategy. Organizational change defined by Hurn (2012 cited in Bourne, 2015:p. 142) â€Å"involves changing an organization’s direction from the present position to a more desiredRead MoreI Are Not Special By David Mccullough Jr., An English Teacher And Son Of A Pulitzer Prize1466 Words   |  6 PagesScience proves that no two humans are exactly the same. Even twins, although their genetic codes may be identical, their personal experiences and individual personalities set them apart. This individual uniqueness leads to the common belief that everyone is â€Å"special.† David McCullough Jr., an English teacher and son of a Pulitzer Prize winning historian, denounced this belief when speaking to graduating seniors at Wellesley High School in Massachusetts near the end of Spring 2012. His words, â€Å"YouRead MoreRelationship Between Man and Nature2521 Words   |  10 Pagesï » ¿Humans Place in Universe Relationship between Man and Nature Human Life and its connection to the universe, is a rather complex idea to understand. This universe is full of mystery and how we human fit into it, what is our role and what are things that are being exchanged between human lives and the universe, provide a substantial topic of research. For centuries, thinkers, philosophers and scientists have been trying to figure out this relation but so far, all we have is various theories inRead MoreAnalysis Of Automation And The Future Of The Auto Transportation Industry2059 Words   |  9 PagesIndustry Time and time again advancements in technology have assisted the evolution of mankind. Since Neanderthals began using stone instead of wood, and once again when ancient civilization began to use forging techniques and experimenting with different metals. This advancement continued into the 19th century when Europe and the United States went through the industrial revolution. The last revolution we went through was the computer revolution. Since computers have become more and more prevalent

Mongol Invasions Battle of Legnica

The Battle of Legnica was part of the 13th-century Mongol invasion of Europe. Date Henry the Pious was defeated on April 9, 1241. Armies Commanders Europeans Henry the Pious of SilesiaUnknown - estimates range from 2,000 to 40,000 men depending on the source Mongols BaidarKadanOrda Khanapproximately 8,000 to 20,000 men Battle Summary In 1241, the Mongol ruler Batu Khan dispatched emissaries to King Bà ©la IV of Hungary demanding that he turn over the Cumans that had sought safety within his realm. Batu Khan claimed the nomadic Cumans as his subjects as his troops had defeated them and conquered their lands. Following Bà ©las refusal of his demands, Batu Khan ordered his chief military commander, Subutai to begin planning for an invasion of Europe. A gifted strategist, Subutai sought to prevent the forces of Europe from uniting so that they could be defeated in detail. Dividing the Mongol forces in three, Subutai directed two armies to advance on Hungary, while a third was sent further north to Poland. This force led by Baidar, Kadan, and Orda Khan was to raid through Poland with the goal of keeping Polish and northern European forces from coming to the aid of Hungary. Moving out, Orda Khan and his men rampaged through northern Poland, while Baidar and Kadan struck in the south. During the early parts of the campaign, they sacked the cities of Sandomierz, Zawichost, Lublin, Krakà ³w, and Bytom. Their assault on Wroclaw was defeated by the citys defenders. Reuniting, the Mongols learned that King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia was moving towards them with a force of 50,000 men. Nearby, Duke Henry the Pious of Silesia was marching to join with the Bohemians. Seeing an opportunity to eliminate Henrys army, the Mongols rode hard to intercept him before he could join with Wenceslaus. On April 9, 1241, they encountered Henrys army near present-day Legnica in southwest Poland. Possessing a mixed force of knights and infantry, Henry formed for battle with the mass of Mongol cavalry. As Henrys men prepared for battle they were disconcerted by the fact that the Mongol troops rode into position in near silence, using flag signals to direct their movements. The battle opened with an attack by Boleslav of Moravia on the Mongol lines. Advancing in front of the rest of Henrys army, Boleslavs men were repulsed after the Mongols nearly surrounded their formation and peppered them with arrows. As Boleslav fell back, Henry sent forward two divisions under Sulislav and Meshko of Opole. Storming towards the enemy, their attack appeared successful as the Mongols began retreating. Pressing their attack, they followed the enemy and in the process fell for one of the Mongols standard battle tactics, the feigned retreat. As they pursued the enemy, a single rider appeared from Mongol lines yelling Run! Run! in Polish. Believing this warning, Meshko began falling back. Seeing this, Henry advanced with his own division to support Sulislav. The battle renewed, the Mongols again fell back with the Polish knights in pursuit. Having separated the knights from the infantry, the Mongols turned and attacked. Surrounding the knights, they used smoke to prevent the European infantry from seeing what was happening. As the knights were cut down, the Mongols rode in on the infantrys flanks routing and killing the majority. In the fighting, Duke Henry was killed as he and his bodyguard tried to flee the carnage. His head was removed and placed on a spear which was later paraded around Legnica. Aftermath Casualties for the Battle of Legnica are not certain. Sources state that in addition to Duke Henry, the majority of the Polish and northern European troops were slain by the Mongols and his army eliminated as a threat. To count the dead, the Mongols removed the right ear of the fallen and reportedly filled nine sacks after the battle. Mongol losses are unknown. Though a crushing defeat, Legnica represents the farthest west Mongol forces reached during the invasion. Following their victory, a small Mongol force attacked Wenceslaus at Klodzko but was beaten off. Their diversionary mission a success, Baidar, Kadan, and Orda Khan took their men south to aid Subutai in the main assault on Hungary. Source Mongol Invasion of Europe, 1222-1242

Stegoceras - Facts and Figures

Name: Stegoceras (Greek for roof horn); pronounced STEG-oh-SEH-rass Habitat: Forests of western North America Historical Period: Late Cretaceous (75 million years ago) Size and Weight: Up to six feet long and 100 pounds Diet: Plants Distinguishing Characteristics: Light build; bipedal posture; extremely thick skull in males About Stegoceras Stegoceras was the prime example of a pachycephalosaur (thick-headed lizard)--a family of ornithischian, plant-eating, two-legged dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous period, characterized by their extremely thick skulls. This otherwise sleekly built herbivore had a noticeable dome on its head made of almost-solid bone; paleontologists speculate that Stegoceras males held their heads and necks parallel to the ground, build up a head of speed, and rammed each other on the noggins as hard as they could. (They may also, secondarily, have used their heads to butt away the flanks of encroaching tyrannosaurs, though we have no objective proof of this behavior.) The sensible question is: What was the point of this Three Stooges routine? Extrapolating from the behavior of present-day animals, its likely that Stegoceras males head-butted each other for the right to mate with females. This theory is supported by the fact that researchers have discovered two distinct varieties of Stegoceras skulls, one of which is thicker than the other and presumably belonged to the males of the species. (However, some paleontologists dispute this theory, noting that such high-speed collisions would tend to be disadvantageous from an evolutionary perspective--for example, a dizzy, concussed Stegoceras could easily be picked off by a hungry raptor!) The type specimen of Stegoceras was named by the famous Canadian paleontologist Lawrence Lambe in 1902, following its discovery in the Dinosaur Provincial Park formation of Alberta, Canada. For a few decades, this unusual dinosaur was believed to be a close relative of Troodon (which was actually a saurischian rather than an ornithischian dinosaur, and thus resided on an entirely different branch of the dinosaur family tree), until the discovery of further pachycephalosaur genera made its provenance clear. For better or for worse, Stegoceras is the standard by which all subsequent pachycephalosaurs have been judged--which is not necessarily a good thing, considering how much confusion still exists about the behavior and growth stages of these dinosaurs. For example, the presumed pachycephalosaurs Dracorex and Stygimoloch may have been either juvenile, or unusually aged adults, of the well-known genus Pachycephalosaurus-- and at least two fossil specimens that were initially assigned to Stegoceras have since been promoted to their own genera, Colepiocephale (Greek for knucklehead) and Hanssuesia (named after the Austrian scientist Hans Suess).

Poverty Is A Serious World Problem Essay - 923 Words

If you were asked to donate some of your own items or money to help fight poverty, would you do it? A substantial amount of the world’s population suffers from some sort of poverty, whether it be monetary poverty, or food poverty. Poverty has become such a prevalent issue throughout history, that it isn’t put into consideration as much as it should be. Poverty is a serious world problem, and truly needs to be stopped. With the help of citizens of the world, and different groups, and charities, the percentage of poverty stricken people around the world could be greatly shrunk. Above all, poverty has countless effects on people, society, governments, etc. One of the multitude of effects, mainly caused by food poverty, is malnutrition. Some families who suffer from poverty can’t afford to buy food, or buy healthy foods. The figures on food poverty are closer to reality than the monetary poverty statistics, says Ivan Hidalgo. Hidalgo stated that the food poverty statistics are more at large than the monetary poverty. Malnutrition can also lead to health issues such as diseases, while most families cannot afford hospital care. Poverty also causes problem in education and societies. A manifold of people struggling with poverty are not able to attend school, which will affect them for the rest of their lives. The lack of education also greatly harms the economy of several countries. Those who do not have any schooling often are not able to be employed anywhere, so theyShow MoreRelatedPoverty Is A Serious World Problem924 Words   |  4 PagesFighting P overty If you were asked to donate some of your own items or money to help fight poverty, would you do it? A substantial amount of the world’s population suffers from some sort of poverty, whether it be monetary poverty, or food poverty. Poverty has become such a prevalent issue throughout history, that it isn’t put into consideration as much as it should be. Poverty is a serious world problem, and truly needs to be stopped. With the help of citizens of the world, and different groupsRead MorePoverty Is A Serious World Problem920 Words   |  4 Pageshelp fight poverty, would you commit to it? A substantial amount of the world’s population suffers from a form of poverty, whether it be monetary poverty, or food poverty. Poverty has become such a prevalent issue throughout history, that it isn’t put into consideration as much as it should be. Poverty is a serious world problem, and truly needs to be stopped. With the guidance of citizens of the world, groups an d charities, the percentage of poverty stricken people around the world could be greatlyRead MoreThe Problem Of World Hunger1258 Words   |  6 Pagespervasive threat of death have been streaming on various media. World Hunger is one of the main problems that a large portion of the global population faces today. Hunger varies with severity but in this case it is the want of food in a third world country. World hunger is a problem that has existed for much of our known history; it has faded away from central concerns because it is barely brought up in everyday conversations. World hunger has many aggravating factors and principal causes, such asRead MoreAssessed Essay Question:. ‘The Problem Of Poverty Is A1179 Words   |  5 PagesAssessed Essay Question: ‘The problem of poverty is a problem of riches’. Analyse with reference to recent trends in global economic inequality. Essay Number: 30923 Word Count: S_37/20 114/22 555/23 666 989/24 1612 2127/25 3107/26 3851/27 1 Introduction In the context of globalization, the unbalanced economic development as the basic rule of global economy and nations’ economic development has been widely accepted by the public around the world. However, people are not subjectively willing to faceRead MoreDifferent Solutions to Poverty in Urban Areas1357 Words   |  6 PagesDifferent solutions to poverty in urban areas 1. Introduction: Poverty can be defined in two ways, which are absolute poverty and relative poverty. In terms of absolute poverty, Murray (2004:2) suggests that the lack of an adequate income and cannot gain access to basic necessities to provide for basic human needs-food, clothing, warmth and shelter- are a clear indication of poverty. In a relative way, there was an assumption that a certain standard of living was normal, and that those living belowRead MorePoverty in Kenya, Africa868 Words   |  4 Pages Poverty is one of the biggest problems that the world faces in present time. The poverty that takes place in more underdeveloped countries such as Kenya, Africa, is majorly affecting the citizens because of the diseases that are being spread throughout the entire state, the lack of medical supplies that is needed for each doctor, and unsanitary water and a very insufficient amount of food. The health and well being of the citizens of Kenya, Africa is horrific, many of the diseases that are spreadRead MorePoverty As A Social Problem1739 Words   |  7 Pages Poverty as a Social Problem Magdalena Brania Mrs. Kropf May 27, 2015 Poverty is inscribed in the history of the world, but it is not inherent fate of every human being. It is also not related to the human nature, which does not mean that it can not be due to its nature. All communities experience it, with a greater or lesser extent way causing psychological and sociological conflicts. Society who have to deal with poverty is not only from undeveloped countries, but also developedRead MoreHunger Is A Serious Problem910 Words   |  4 PagesWorld Hunger Hunger is an everyday battle in America and all over the world. Hunger is a feeling of discomfort, or weakness caused by lack of food. Another definition for hunger is having a strong desire or craving for food. I’m sure everyone has heard once before in their lives from their friends,parents or other family members that you are not truly hungry even though you say otherwise. Every time I would say, â€Å"I don’t like that,† and I was talking about some type of food my parents would alwaysRead MoreSocial Darwinism and Poverty1717 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Social Darwinism and Poverty The concept of Darwinism is more mundanely known as survival of the fittest. That means that the animals that are best suited for survival, which is best adapted to the society in which they live will be the ones that survive. Those that do not have skills and abilities which will allow them to live and thrive will die out. Consequently the next generation will be more comprised of far more creatures that have the more appropriate characteristics. Some have suggestedRead MorePoverty And The Poverty Of Canada1236 Words   |  5 PagesUnfortunately for every group of seven people in Canada there is one person who knows this isn’t impossible at all; it’s their reality, and it’s called poverty. Being one of the eight richest and highly industrialized countries in the entire world, and apart of the G8 countries, Canada is still the only one that hasn’t devised a national anti-poverty plan or even a housing plan. Which is absurd, because according to a 2010 re port by the Wellesley Institute titled Precarious Housing in Canada between

Analysis Of Composition With Tree Trunks - 1161 Words

I viewed Fernand Là ©ger’s â€Å"Composition with Tree Trunks† (painted in 1933, using oil paints on canvas) at the Dallas Museum of Art in their permanent collection, on September 17, 2016. The painting is placed on the second floor, within a collection of 20th-century European art. This work visually yells at passersby, begging them to look at it as they move up the staircase. One is invited to stand at the entrance of the level and contemplate this painting’s loose form and captivating use of color and line. Là ©ger utilizes abstract forms (to create ambiguous objects) with organic and biomorphic shapes, raw lines and blurred colors to fabricate vague relationships between these shapes, as well as surrealist qualities to showcase his experiments in art during the Cubist movement. He successfully captures the â€Å"grab-bag† essence of his work by borrowing ideas from Cubism, Suprematism, Surrealism, and Expressionism and effectively creates a unified and mystical scene that connects nature and its biological elements with technology and its mechanical elements. In the painting, I first noticed the central divide in the composition, creating a left hemisphere and a right hemisphere. The background is a muted grey, with the subject matter lying on top of an off-white backdrop. There is a fluid, black line outlining this white region, however, toward the left side, the color begins to transform into brown. On the right side, I saw spindly, dark tree branches over a layering of lighterShow MoreRelatedFormal Analysis Of North Shore Lake Superior By Lawren S. Harris1583 Words   |  7 Pages ARTH1130 Introduction to Art History Formal Analysis: North Shore Lake Superior by Lawren S. Harris In the painting North Shore Lake Superior by Lawren S. Harris which is located in the Tom Thompson Gallery in the AGO, line and colour relationships bring about a sense of harmony and contrast throughout the piece as well as the feeling of peacefulness. When the viewer witnesses the landscape, the composition exemplifies a scene of a beach in the winter with its many blue tones. The work of art resemblesRead MoreEssay on Canarium Schweinfurthii in Africa817 Words   |  4 Pagestropical tree widely distributed in East, Central, and West Africa. A mature tree reaches a height of 45-57 m with a straight cylindrical bole up to 27 m with a trunk diameters of 1.2 to 1.5 m over a slight buttress root (Mbagwu et al., 2008). The tree is cultivated for its fruits which are edible and produce oil which is harvested on a large scale in West Africa. The oil from the resin is also used in perfumery and medicines due to its lavender like smell. In Uganda, the resin from the tree is usuallyRead M ore Cezanne, Lowry and Landscapes Essay1502 Words   |  7 Pagesbody of Impressionist painters. The main body of Impressionist painters were concerned with the fleeting effects of light and colour, and in order to capture the surface impression of that moment they had to work fluently and quickly. s analysis was far more prolonged and pains-taking; He spent so long analysing his subjects that some of his work was never finished. began to be more concerned with the use of colour in modelling objects and landscape and as a way of expressing their underlyingRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Twelve By Sandra Cisneros Essay841 Words   |  4 PagesJorge D. Gomez-Kobayashi AP Language and Literature â€Å"Eleven† Rhetorical Analysis Composition Prompt: How does Cisneros characterize Rachel’s feelings about her eleventh birthday using rhetorical devices? Aging is a universal element within all of us humans -- throughout â€Å"growing up,† we learn new things, undergo minimal and life-changing experiences, in which we eventually form our own â€Å"character.† In the short story â€Å"Eleven,† by Sandra Cisneros, we enter the psyche of Rachel, anRead MoreAbstract. Does Organic Really Matter? Advertisers Are Always1576 Words   |  7 Pagesbeing selected to be tested for the observation of pesticides. The control is water. A pesticide detection kit determines the outcome of pesticidal toxicity in a fruit. Strawberries, carrots, and parsley were altogether tried in the result of the analysis. Natural and non-organic nourishment are both receiving tests. I will go to Whole Food and a Farmer Market. The Farmer Market claims to have pesticide-free natural organic product. In addition, I will purchase non-natural organic products from WholeRead MoreFracking Is Not The Cleanest Alternative For Oil Reclamation Of Shale G as From Subterranean Rock Formations1726 Words   |  7 Pagesvariety of factors based on the returned frequency. The main analysis is made by the determination of the time it takes for the signal to make a full cycle, from the transmitter off the object to the receiver, and the strength of the returned signal. The time for a cycle to complete can be used to define the depth and shape of the object underground, while the signal strength dictates the density of the object and through comparative analysis of other known compounds can be identified. The next stepRead MoreForest Ecosystem2734 Words   |  11 Pagesas physical and chemical processes such as energy flow and nutrient cycling. A typical forest is composed of the over story (canopy  or upper tree layer) and the  understory. The understory is further subdivided into the shrub layer, herb layer, and also the moss layer and soil microbes. In some complex forests, there is also a well-defined lower tree layer. Forests are central to all human life because they provide a diverse range of resources: they store carbon, aid in regulating the planetaryRead MoreLexicological analysis2010 Words   |  9 Pages Lexicological analysis of the extract from Rudyard Kipling’s â€Å"The Light that Failed† Contents 1. The functional style 2. The variants of English 3. Etymological analysis 4. Polysemy 5. Grammatical meaning 6. Contextual analysis 7. Componential analysis 8. Homonymy 9. Synonymy 10. Antonymy 11. Hypero-hyponimic relations 12. Word-formation 13. Idioms 14. Phrasal verbs 15. Morphological analysis 16. Resources 17. Dictionaries They headed for a certain tree that Dick knew wellRead MoreThe Collection At The Museum Of Fine Arts2099 Words   |  9 Pagesby his cheerful red coat which conjures a powerful presence in the painting. In contrast, the other worn-like characters’ wear muted, dark colors while the child’s attire in the far bottom left of the painting is almost illegible among the dark tree trunk. The use of the primary color red at the center of the painting asserts a sense of strain, seriousness and movement (Herberholz, Herberholz, 2002, p. 29). However, I also noticed the emitting warm palette of colors affiliated with this FlemishRead MoreMangroves: A Vital Part of the Environment2741 Words   |  11 PagesA mangrove can be defined as a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, usually exceeding a length of one meter in height. It will generally grow above the average tidal level in a marine coastal environment. The word mangrove can also mean the same as ‘rainforest’ or â⠂¬Ëœtidal forest’ because this is the environment, when in large quantities, mangroves are known to create. According to MARINEBIO, (1998-2014) most mangrove species can be found in South East Asia, The United States and the western Hemisphere;

Epidemiology of Communicable Disease for Malaria - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theEpidemiology of Communicable Disease for Malaria. Answer: Introduction The continued incidence of malaria all over the world in endemic areas continues to be a public health challenge. India is one of the countries where the scourge of the disease has been difficult to control owing to the tropical and sub-tropical ecology that favours the growth of the mosquito vector. The global incidence of malaria in Southeast Asia, Africa and South America has also been high. The control measures that are adopted include vector control through the use of insecticides and other strategies. The parasite control through the use of newer drugs, vaccines and sustained malaria control programs are being used to eliminate the disease. Epidemiology of malaria in India Malaria is a major public health problem in 104 countries, causing illness in 207 million people causing 627,000 deaths annually. India accounts for 70-80% of the cases of malaria in South Asia and about 1000 deaths occur due to malaria every year in the country that is known for tropical weather conditions (Dash, Valecha, Anvikar, Kumar, 2008; Anvikar, et al., 2016). There are reports that the actual number of deaths due to malaria may be 10 to20 times higher than those reported(Manguin, 2013). The occurrence of rain provides the climate for the breeding of the mosquitoes that are the Plasmodium vector. There occurs tremendous heterogeneity in the malaria because several ecotypes of the pathogen exist in different parts of the country. The transmission of the malarial protozoan, Plasmodium, occurs through mosquitoes that belong to the genus Anopheles. The genus has 465 species that have been recognized taxonomically and 50 member species that are yet to be named(Sinka, et al., 2012 ). The transmission of malaria occurs through six primary vectors, Anopheles culicifacies, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles dirus, Anopheles fluviatilis, Anopheles minimus and Anopheles epiroticus. Multiple species of the malaria parasite and the vectors cause the endemicity of malaria in India. Four species of the malaria parasite cause malaria in India. Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax are common, while malarial cases due to P. malariae and P. ovale are rare. Historically, the P. vivax has caused the larger number of malaria cases but of late P. falciparum malaria cases are more frequent and have occurred in larger numbers. Some areas have reported simultaneous occurrence of malaria caused by both the species (Das, 2012). The climatic conditions of rainfall, relative humidity and temperature play a major role in the incidence of malaria. It is recognised as a disease that is among the most sensitive to temperature (Bi, et al., 2013). The fact that large parts of India are tropical and the average temperatures range between 15-30 degree Celsius and rainfall and precipitation occurs across states through the year makes the climate conducive to the breeding of mosquitoes. Most cases of malaria are reported from the Eastern states of Orissa, Jharkhand, Bengal, central states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and the Western states of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka (Das, 2012). Environmental change due to changes in climate and manmade ecological changes, such as, construction of dams, intense agriculture, rapid urbanisation and deforestation contribute to a shift from rural malaria to urban malaria, industrial to travel malaria and forest to plain malaria in the Indian context (Das, 2012). Global epidemiology and ecology of malaria Apart from India, malaria is endemic to several regions around the world in Southeast Asia, East Africa and South America. In the current context the global ecology has become altered due to human intervention and climate change has affected the way malaria is expected to spread due to the impact of green house gases and land use. The malaria parasite circulates from the reservoir host, the Anopheles mosquito to humans and causes disease (Kaewwaen Bhumiratana, 2015). The feeding activity and ability of the vectors to breed in a shaded habitat can cause increase in malaria incidence. Anthropogenic changes in land use change may alter the risk of transmission of malaria and thus render human beings susceptible to malaria. Transmission in rural areas is considered to be higher than in urban areas. The night time bite by a female Anopheles mosquito when in an unprotected environment causes an infection among humans. Those working in agricultural fields are more vulnerable to transmission of malaria due to stagnation of irrigation water. In a study that compared malaria transmission at three locations in Brazil, Chennai and Panaji city in Goa, India, Columbia, Malawi, Senegal and Uganda, it was found that a high degree of annual rainfall and a conducive temperature caused transmission of malaria. Maturation of the vector to adult stage and transmission to humans usually begins after the seasonal rainfall begins. In urban areas risk of transmission is higher people who live in the vicinity of small urban parks, water storage tanks (Wilson, 2015). The incidence of malaria in urban environments has seen a decline due to improved dwellings, drainage of water which could become a breeding place of the vectors . better personal protection, houses that are mosquito proof and improved diagnosis and treatment have caused a decline in the incidence of malaria in urban areas (Wilson, 2015). In Africa, the incidence of malaria has remained high due to conditions of climate and temperature that are optimal for the breeding of mosquitoes. Several efforts at reducing the disease burden have been made but incidence, morbidity and mortality remain high (Snow, 2015). Control measures In India, the National Malaria Control Program in 1953 was based on the use of the insecticide DDT to kill the vectors and medication when required. Malathion was used from 1960s to control the vector population. Due to the development of insecticide resistance the insecticides used are not effective against all vector species. Later the program was modified and low incidence of malaria was achieved. But a resurgence of the disease occurred in the early 1970s. The current program to eradicate malaria was launched in 2016 and it is called the National framework for malaria eradication from 2016-2030. Strategies to control malaria include, vector control and parasite control. Medicines are dispensed through dispensaries and hospitals. Vector control has to be done through a multi pronged approach that includes reduction at source, use of larvicides, use of larvivorous fish, use of space spraying and environmental management and modification. This approach is for reducing the incidence of malaria in urban areas. Low quality housing and crowded living in slums is the main reason for increased breeding of mosquitoes and transmission of malaria (Searo.who.int). The use of chloroquin was the main arsenal in treating a Plasmodium infection. But the use of artemisinin derivatives has helped malaria that is resistant to chloroquin. The recent emergence of strains resistant to artemisinin is a cause for serious concern. Drug resistant malaria will be difficult to treat and in several countries the lack of resources has made it difficult to identify cases of drug resistance. Work on the development of a malaria vaccine is in advanced stages and some versions have been released. A pilot program was launched in Ghana, Malawi and Kenya for vaccination of children from April 2017. The incidence of malaria in the pilot study was reduced to 31% among children. The name of the vaccine is RTS, S and is being used in Africa (WHO). Prevention of malaria through the use of insecticide treated mosquito nets and spraying residences with insecticides has yielded improvement and the number of cases have declined considerably. A 37% decline in the cases of malaria and a 60% fall in the number of deaths has achieved, globally. While many countries have been able to eradicate malaria completely, others have achieved low incidence and have embarked upon programs for complete elimination(Shretta, Avancea, Hatefi, 2015). Previous experience has shown that resource crunch has been the main reason for the weakening of control measures employed and this has led to resurgence of malaria. Consistent economic inputs and maintenance of funding is vital to achieving elimination of malaria. Minor reasons such as travel or "airport malaria" can transmit the infection that are epidemiologically vulnerable and entomologically receptive (Huang Tatem, 2013). Conclusion The epidemiology and ecology of malaria are well understood. The incidence of malaria continues and the cases of resurgence time and again means that the efforts have to be sustained through better funding. The temperature and intermittent rainfall and relative humidity contribute to the incidence of malaria. The countries with tropical and sub-tropical climates have the maximum number of cases and fatalities due to malaria. The use of vector control through control of the Anopheles mosquitoes through insecticides, improved drainage of water and other biocontrol measures has helped in the prevention. The development of malaria vaccine shows promise and its efficacy is being tested among children in Africa. The development of drug resistance in Plasmodium has made treatment of malaria difficult. Earlier chloroquin was used for treatment. It has now been replaced by artemisinin but the development of resistance to this new drug has caused considerable concern. Continued funding and sus tained efforts can help reduce incidence and help nations succeed in elimination efforts. References Anvikar, A., Shah, N., Dhariwal, A., Sonal, G., Pradhan, M., Ghosh, S., Valecha, N. (2016). Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax Malaria in India. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 95(6 Suppl): 108120. Bi, Y., Yu, W., Hu, W., Lin, H., Guo, Y., Zhou, X.-N., Tong, S. (2013). Impact of climate variability on Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Yunnan Province, China. Parasites Vectors, 6, 357. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-6-357. Das, A. A. (2012). Malaria in India: The Center for the Study of Complex Malaria in India. Acta Tropica, 121(3), 267273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.11.008. Dash, A., Valecha, N., Anvikar, A., Kumar, A. (2008). Malaria in India: challenges and opportunities. Journal of biosciences , 33(4):583-92. Huang, Z., Tatem, A. J. (2013). Global malaria connectivity through air travel. . Malaria Journal, 12, 269. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2875-12-269. Kaewwaen, W., Bhumiratana, A. (2015). Landscape Ecology and Epidemiology of Malaria Associated with Rubber Plantations in Thailand: Integrated Approaches to Malaria Ecotoping. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases, 909106. . Manguin, S. (2013). Anopheles mosquitoes - New insights into malaria vectors. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech. Searo.who.int. (n.d.). /national_framework_malaria_elimination_india_2016_2030.pdf?ua=1. Retrieved from https://www.searo.who.int: https://www.searo.who.int/india/publications/national_framework_malaria_elimination_india_2016_2030.pdf?ua=1 Shretta, R., Avancea, A., Hatefi, A. (2015). The economics of malaria control and elimination: a systematic review. Malaria Journal, 15:593. Sinka, M., Bangs, M., Manguin, S., Rubio-Palis, Y., Chareonviriyaphap, T., Coetze, M., . . . Hay, S. (2012). A global map of dominant malaria vectors. Parasites Vectors, 4:69. Snow, R. W. (2015). Global malaria eradication and the importance of Plasmodium falciparum epidemiology in Africa. . BMC Medicine, 13, 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-014-0254-7. WHO. (n.d.). /malaria-vaccine-implementation-qa/en/. Retrieved from https://www.who.int: https://www.who.int/malaria/media/malaria-vaccine-implementation-qa/en/ Wilson, M. L.-H. (2015). Urban Malaria: Understanding its Epidemiology, Ecology, and Transmission across Seven Diverse ICEMR Network Sites. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 93(3 Suppl), 110123.

Enterprise Business Intelligence

Question: 1. What is unsupervised classification? 2. What is k-means clustering? 3. When performing K-means clustering, what attributes should you look for in the inputs for creating the clusters ? Answer: 1: Unsupervised classification is one of the major categories of techniques of image classification calculated by software. The outcome of unsupervised classification that is pixel grouping with common characteristics are based on software analysis of image. This does not requires user to provide sample classes. Computers for determining related pixels and grouping them with common characteristics use such technique. These common characteristics produced by computers have to be interrelated to actual features on various grounds and this include developed areas, wetlands and coniferous forests. Since sample classes is not provided in unsupervised classification, the number of classes to generate and band to use is identified by users. Pixels are then clustered into number of classes with the help of software and in later part, land cover classes are identified by users. Unsupervised classification comprise of three steps and this include activating extension of spatial analyst and generating clusters and assigning classes. The identified classes under unsupervised classification may or may not correspond well to land interest of cover types. There are too many land cover classes concerning heterogeneous land cover and they are the results of such classification. This particular classification is considered useful when the image area does not have aerial photographs and it is not possible for users to accurately specify training areas of such cover type. 2: K means is regarded as one of the simplest unsupervised learning algorithm and assist in solving well-known problems of clustering. The procedure of K mean clustering follows a simple way of classifying given set of data through a certain number of clusters. In this step, k centroids for each of one cluster is defined. Since different location results in different results, it is essential to place these centroids in a cunning way. Hence, centroids should be placed far away from each other as possible. In the second step, each point belonging to given set of data is associated to the nearest centroid. First step is completed when no point is pending. It is required to re calculate k new centroids as clusters barycenter, which is the result of previous step. Thirdly, a new binding has to be done between nearest new centroid and same data set points after the formation of k new centroids. This result in generation of loop and after this k centroids change their location gradually until the time no changes are done. An example depicting k means clustering is as follows: It is assumed that there is an n sample feature vectors y1, y2, y3 ...yn for all same class and it is known that they are falling into k compact clusters and l n. In cluster i, the mean of cluster is assumed to be u1. A minimum distance classifier can be used to separate the clusters, if they are well separated. Then it can be said that y is in cluster if [ y- u1 ] is minimum of all l distance. Following procedure is selected for finding l means. Initial guesses are to be made for the means u1, u2, u3 ul. It is suggested to estimate means for classifying samples into clusters until there are no changes in any mean. With mean of all samples of cluster i, u1 is replaced. 3: Inputs in performing k means clustering is that they should be of appropriate choice of number of clusters. This would help in yielding proper results. Input data set should be partitioned in k means algorithm. Input data set does not requires ordering and it should not deviate from their current value. Inputs comprised of numeric values of attributes and attributes of inputs should have commonly used technique of trigonometrically encoding periodic. Nonetheless, using this trigonometric encoding causes a systematic error despite of providing any input to algorithm. Input data should be capable of presorting and using indirect indexing for accessing sorted array. It should also have mixed elements and has collection of features for each data points. Input for cluster creating in performing k means clustering should have features of machine learning algorithm. Input points needs to be coordinated for forming the number of clusters. Inputs that are empty or null results in exceptions. They are such that it capable initializing center of clusters and attributing closest of cluster for each point of data. Unsupervised classification does not require the users to have the foreknowledge of each classes. It can still consider the multivariate spreads and obtaining accurate covariance matrix and mean vectors.